Female genital mutilation
A complex community practice with no health benefits — only harm — usually carried out on girls who cannot meaningfully consent.
What is FGM?
FGM is a complex community practice, deeply connected to culture, tradition, social expectations and ideas about what it means to raise a girl well. In communities where FGM is practiced, many mothers, sisters, grandmothers and other women may genuinely believe they are doing what is best for a girl. Some may have experienced FGM themselves without understanding it as harmful, and may see it as an important part of preparing a daughter for womanhood, adulthood, marriage, acceptance and belonging within her community. These beliefs can be reinforced across generations and by strong social pressures to conform (3).
Understanding these beliefs does not mean accepting the harm caused by FGM. FGM has no health benefits and can have serious physical and psychological consequences. It is usually carried out on girls who cannot meaningfully consent, and is internationally recognised as a violation of the rights of girls and women.
Approaching FGM with curiosity, compassion and without judgement can help us understand why the practice continues and create opportunities for families and communities to question harmful norms safely. Lasting change is most effective when communities themselves are supported to have conversations, share experiences and imagine safer ways for girls to grow into adulthood with dignity, health and choice.
Types of FGM
Type 1: Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans (the external and visible part of the clitoris), and/or the prepuce or clitoral hood. Type 1a is removal of the prepuce or clitoral hood only. Type 1b is removal of the clitoral glans with the prepuce or clitoral hood.
Type 2: Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora (inner folds of the vulva), with or without removal of the labia majora (outer folds). Type 2a is removal of the labia minora only. Type 2b is partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora. Type 2c also involves the labia majora.
Type 3 (infibulation): Narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal, formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora or labia majora, sometimes without stitching, with or without removal of the clitoral prepuce or hood and glans. Type 3a involves the labia minora; Type 3b involves the labia majora.
Type 4: All other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes — for example, pricking, piercing, incising, scraping, and cauterising the genital areas.
These classifications follow World Health Organisation descriptions of FGM.
Physical impacts
FGM has no health benefits and can cause serious, sometimes life-threatening harm. The impact can be immediate, including severe pain, heavy bleeding, shock, infection and difficulties passing urine. For some girls and women, complications can continue throughout their lives, including recurrent infections, chronic pain, painful periods, difficulties with sexual intercourse and fertility problems.
FGM can also affect pregnancy and childbirth. Women living with FGM are more likely to experience complications during birth, including prolonged or obstructed labour, heavy bleeding, emergency caesarean or assisted delivery, stillbirth and early neonatal death. The risks can vary depending on the type of FGM and the individual's circumstances, but the effects can be significant.
For anyone living with FGM, compassionate, specialist healthcare and support can make an important difference. No one should be made to feel ashamed of their experience, and everyone deserves care that respects their dignity, choices and individual needs.
Psychological impacts
FGM can affect emotional and psychological wellbeing as well as physical health, and everyone's experience is different. Some girls and women may experience anxiety, depression, trauma, low self-esteem, or feelings of distress, fear, and loss of control. Recent WHO research found that women and girls living with FGM have an almost three-times greater risk of depression or anxiety and a 4.4-times higher likelihood of experiencing PTSD compared with those who have not experienced FGM (3).
The psychological impact can be immediate or emerge later in life, and may include flashbacks, nightmares, emotional distress, difficulty trusting others, problems with body image or self-worth, and feeling disconnected from their bodies or emotions. For some, the experience can be particularly complicated when FGM has been carried out or supported by people they love and trust, or when it is closely connected to family, community, culture, and belonging.
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